E-ISSN:2349-4166
P-ISSN:2349-4158

Review Article

Particulate

Public Health Review - International Journal of Public Health Research

2021 Volume 8 Number 2 March-April
Publisherwww.medresearch.in

A Critical Review on the Effect of Particulate Matter (PM) in Air on Public Health

Mukhopadhyay D.1, Swaminathan J.2*, Kumar Sharma A.3, Basu S.4, Patel P.5, Mukherjee D.6
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17511/ijphr.2021.i02.02

1 Debraj Mukhopadhyay, Department of Public Health, School of Allied Health Sciences, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University (DPSRU), New Delhi, India.

2* J. Swaminathan, Assistant Professor, School of Allied Health Sciences, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University (DPSRU), New Delhi, India.

3 Arun Kumar Sharma, Director & Professor, Department of Community Medicine, University College Medical Sciences (UCMS) & Guru Teg Bahadur (G.T.B) Hospital, University of Delhi (D.U), Delhi, India.

4 Soham Basu, Research Scholar, Institute of Forest Ecology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University, Brno, Czech Republic.

5 Parth Patel, H. K. College of Pharmacy, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India.

6 Dattatreya Mukherjee, MBBS Student and Research Assistant, International School, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P.R China.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), particulate matter (PM) contamination causes around 800,000 premature deaths per year, ranking 13th in the world in terms of mortality. However, several findings revealed that the correlation is much stronger and more complicated than previously believed. PM is an element of emissions comprised of very small, acidic, organic compounds, metals, and particulate soil or dust particles or fluid droplets. The most consistent air quality component linked to human illness is PM, which is categorized by size. PM is likely to develop cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disorders due to the mechanisms of inflammation, overt and indirect coagulation activation, and direct translocation to the systemic circulation. The evidence on the cardiovascular system that shows a PM effect is strong. Coronary incidence and mortality rates in populations prone to long-term PM toxicity were significantly higher. Short-term acute emissions increase coronary incidence rates subtly within days of the pollution peak.

Keywords: Air Pollution, Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), Respiratory Illness, Cardiovascular diseases, Cerebrovascular diseases

Corresponding Author How to Cite this Article To Browse
J. Swaminathan, Assistant Professor, , School of Allied Health Sciences, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University (DPSRU), , New Delhi, India.
Email: 		Mukhopadhyay D, Swaminathan J, Sharma AK, Basu S, Patel P, Mukherjee D. A Critical Review on the Effect of Particulate Matter (PM) in Air on Public Health. Public Health Rev Int J Public Health Res. 2021;8(2):13-22.
Available From
https://publichealth.medresearch.in/index.php/ijphr/article/view/155

Manuscript Received Review Round 1 Review Round 2 Review Round 3 Accepted
2021-04-04 2021-04-14 2021-04-24 2021-04-30
Conflict of Interest Funding Ethical Approval Plagiarism X-checker Note
No Nil Yes 5%

© 2021 by Debraj Mukhopadhyay, J. Swaminathan, Arun Kumar Sharma, Soham Basu, Parth Patel, Dattatreya Mukherjee and Published by Siddharth Health Research and Social Welfare Society. This is an Open Access article licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ unported [CC BY 4.0].

Public Health Review - International Journal of Public Health Research 2021;8(2)13
Mukhopadhyay D. et al: A Critical Review on the Effect of Particulate

Introduction

While specific associations have been perceived since ancient times between poor air quality and public health issues, air pollution has become evident in the twentieth century. In 1930, sulfur dioxide mixed with thick fog in the Meuse Valley in Belgium from nearby factories’ pollution. For three days, several thousand people were infected, and 60 people lost their lives due to respiratory issues and acute pulmonary symptoms [1]. Dense smog full of sulfur and smoke particulate fell into London in December 1952 and resulted in over 3,000 unnecessary deaths over three weeks and 12,000 deaths up to February 195 [2]. It was recognizable, but not completely appreciated, the lethality of air emissions. Since air pollution impacts the community at present, the association between polluted air and wellbeing has not been recognized by many physicians still today. The Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1970 was the first major United States legislative initiative to research carbon and air quality limits. The CAA of 1970 established the national standards for environmental air quality. These pronouncements set limitations on six primary air pollutants: carbon dioxide, “lead, nitrogen dioxide; ozone; dioxide with sulfur; and particulate matter (PM).

Air pollution is a severe environmental issue. This is influencing the health of the population in developed and developing countries [3]. The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) had evaluated that globally 1.1 billion people did not breathe healthy air [4]. In the past, so many studies have highlighted the significant contribution of ambient air pollution in human morbidity and mortality (5-11). In 2012, W.H.O reported that around seven million people died and one in eight people died because of air pollution [4]. Air pollution has contributed to about two-thirds of cardiac mortalities and one-third of deaths due to Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD) [5]. The acute symptoms are exacerbated, and the lung function is worsened in patients suffering from asthma and COPD because of acute exposure to air pollution with substantive and definite facts. However, we have not been sure about the long-term effects of certain air pollutants on public health, including biogenic ones [12,14].

Various health effects that have been suggested to occur due to various air pollutants such as particulates, bio-aerosols, ozone, carbon monoxides, VOCs, NO2,and SO₂ are summarized” in the

Table 01: “List of important air pollutants, their sources and health effects”

“Pollutants Sources Health effects
PM Biomass combustion, transportation, incinerators, and manufacturing industries. Acute change in pulmonary functions, COPD, asthma, cardiovascular diseases
Biological pollutants Pollens, dust, mites, animals' droppings and urine, pet hair, insects, fungi/mold spores, parasites, some airborne bacteria and viruses, dairy products, and food processing activities Most often responsible for triggering respiratory illness (asthma, COPD, allergies), infectious diseases & skin diseases
SO₂ Coal and oil combustion or automobile and industrial emission Causes chest constriction, headache, vomiting, and respiratory illness
NO2 Gas stoves and kerosene heater cooking or automobile and industrial exhaust Respiratory and cardiovascular illness
CO Burning of coal and gasoline or motor exhausts Reduction in the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, headaches, and fatigue
VOCs Solvents and chemicals, perfumes, sprays, polishes, air fresheners, repellents, preservatives & smoke Respiratory illness, headaches, eyes/nose/throat irritation & cancer
Ammonia Tobacco smoke, cleaning supplies, litter boxes, or dustbins Eye/skin irritation, headache, nose bleeds, and sinus problems”

PM is a complex mixture of extremely small particles, and liquid droplets made up of acids, organic chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles [15]. Both natural and anthropogenic sources of PM are available.

Manmade PM sources include mechanical and manufacturing processes, combustion, pollution of cars, and cigarette smoke. Vulcanoes, explosions, dust storms, and aerosolized sea salt are the natural causes of this.

Public Health Review - International Journal of Public Health Research 2021;8(2)14
Mukhopadhyay D. et al: A Critical Review on the Effect of Particulate

The “aerodynamic equivalent diameter” can be defined as PM (AED). Sections “of the same AED have the same speed of resolution.

Traditionally, researchers subdivide particles in AED fractions depending on how particles are” formed or put in ““human airways, <10, <2.5 and <0.1 μm (PM10, PM2.5, and PM0.1, respectively) [15].

Figure 01: Comparison of diameters between a hair, a sand garden and PM2.5 and PM10 particles (Source: https://www.encyclopedie-environnement.org/en/health/airborne-particulate-health-effects/) (16)

public_155_01.jpg

Particles of more than 10 μm of diameter have a comparatively short half-life suspension and filter off mainly through the nose and top airways [15]. The cumulative “number and surface area of these particles increase exponentially” with the particle diameter reduction in a mixed environmental sample. However, a substance’s overall particulate mass typically decreases exponentially as the particle diameter decreases.

For example, in the PM10 sample, most particles are incredibly fine, but they constitute a minor portion of the sample's overall particulate mass. Studies have reported an improvement in PM sensitivity morbidity and mortality. While PM exposure risks are modest to any person, the cost of the global healthcare cost for communities is overwhelming.

The World Health Organization estimates that PM2.5 is the world’s 13th most significant mortality source and contributes about 800,000 premature deaths per year [15]. This article provides a review of the effect of ambient airborne PM on human morbidity and mortality. This review article finishes with public health recommendations based on a summary of the reported literature’s findings.

Methodology

The authors have scientifically reviewed all available literature published in the last decade. Our primary purpose is to assess whether PM is correlated with human wellbeing or not. Our secondary goal was to summarize the pathways suggested for alleged correlations based on current human, animal, and in vitro research. We started a PubMed database search using the MESH terms “PM,” “particulate matter,” “air pollution,” “ultrafine particles,” “fine particles,” “coarse particles,” “PM10,” “PM2.5,” and “PM0.1.” [15].

The authors had chosen and decided on the papers based on importance and effect. Where appropriate, attempts have been made to include both constructive and negative studies. Solid trials and epidemiological tests were underlined. Except for redundancy, experiments have been omitted. This paper concludes based on statistical evidence, after reviewing existing results, with human and public health guidelines.

PM and Cardiovascular Health Effects

Several large studies (Table 02) suggest that PM having effects on the cardiovascular system significantly [17,19]. Research on this topic has focused on both the effects of chronic PM exposure and the acute effects of increases in an ambient PM on cardiovascular mortality. In a previous analysis [20]. it was shown that for any increase in mortality caused by PM, two-thirds of the effect was counted for by cardiovascular diseases. Animal studies show a connection between chronic PM exposure and systemic inflammation to the development of atherosclerosis [21,22].

Human studies show that inflammatory cytokines IL 6, TNF Ú, and C reactive protein appear to mediate their effects (CRP) [23]. The development of acute myocardial infarction was linked to increases in both IL-6 and CRP [24]. Another study [25]. demonstrated that “transient IL-6 and TNFά elevations in diabetic patients for 2 days following PM10 exposure. In a prospective cohort study of German patients, Hoffman et al. [26]. associated exposure to PM 2.5 with elevations in CRP”. Similar rises “in CRP from both combustion [27]. and organic matter exposure” have been seen by other researchers [28].

Public Health Review - International Journal of Public Health Research 2021;8(2)15
Mukhopadhyay D. et al: A Critical Review on the Effect of Particulate

Acute PM presence triggers coagulation and platelet activation changes that make the PM and coronary artery disease more proximal. Many experts recognize fibrinogen as a significant cardiovascular risk factor [29].

Intra-tracheal diesel particle instillation culminated in increased platelets' increased activation in hamsters and rapid thrombosis initiation [30]. More experiments in the hamster have indicated small particles translocation and prothrombotic effects on the bloodstream [31].

Table 02: Effects of PM on the CVS

“Author Year PM ΔPM (in μg/m3 ) Outcome measure Effect (95% CI)
Dockery et al.(27) 1993 PM10 18.6 All-cause mortality 26% (8–47)
Pope et al.(28) 1995 PM10 24.5 All-cause mortality 17% (9–26)
Miller et al.(32) 2007 PM2.5 10 Cardiovascular event 24% (9–41)
Toren et al.(33) 2007 PM2.5 Not measured Cardiovascular mortality 12% (7–19)
Samet et al.(19) 2000 PM10 10 All-cause mortality 0.5% (95% CI, 0.1–0.9)
Pope et al.(34) 2006 PM2.5 10 Ischemic cardiac event 4.5% (95% CI, 1.1–8.0)
Omori et al. (35) 2003 TSP 20 All-cause mortality 1.0% (95% CI, 0.8–1.3)”
Neli et al.(36) 2012 PM10 10 Cardiovascular mortality 13% (9-22)
Ye X Peng L et al. (37) 2016 PM2.5 Not measured Coronary Heart Disease 1.34% (95% CI, 0.53–1.34)
Xu A et al.(38) 2017 PM10 10 Ischemic heart disease 0.25% (95% CI: 0.10%, 0.39%)
X Jia et al. (39) 2018 PM2.5 10 Heart rate variability 13.96% (95% CI: − 18.99%, − 8.61%)

PM and Respiratory Health Effects

Since the cardiovascular system has been of great importance in PM [17]. several studies (Table 03) have evaluated the relation between PM exposure and respiratory” disease. Researchers have measured endpoints, including respiratory problems, opioid usage, lung capacity, health insurance, and death. The most regular inquiries and observations of respiratory tract dysfunctions were carried out in the study.

Figure 02: Lung penetration of particles

Source: (https://www.encyclopedie-environnement.org/en/health/airborne-particulate-health-effects/ ) (16)

publc_155_02.jpg

“It varies from acute (pneumonia and bronchitis) to chronic diseases (such as asthma and COPD).

The study showed that adverse health effects had a tangible link to air exposure such as phlegm, tightness in the chest, allergic rhino, sinusitis, bronchial asthma, COPD, hypertension, elevated risk of headache, cardiovascular events, and eye irritation. Very few researches on air quality and its relation with health” have been done in Delhi. Joshi et al. [40].

Researched and identified the diseases caused by the contamination of Delhi vehicles during 1997. Extremely polluted urban areas (SPM, > 500 μg/m3) and less infected rural areas (supposed to be < 400 μg/m3) have, according to area sampling, been identified and serially numbered. The findings of both experiments revealed a three-fold susceptibility of metropolitan environments to vehicular emissions (in heavily contaminated areas). However, the two classes did not vary substantially with regards to asthma, heart disease, or allergies.

In elderly patients, PM10 and PM2.5 increases were associated with decreases in PEFR [41]. Downs et al. [42]. demonstrated that a decrease in PM10 concentration might lead to an attenuated decline in lung function in adult patients. However, research on healthy adults has not as consistently shown an association between PM and respiratory compromise [43].”

Public Health Review - International Journal of Public Health Research 2021;8(2)16
Mukhopadhyay D. et al: A Critical Review on the Effect of Particulate

Table 03: The effects of PM on respiratory admissions

“Author Year PM ΔPM (in μg/m3) Outcome Measures Effect (95% CI)
Karr et al. (44) 2006 PM2.5 10 Infant bronchiolitis admissions 9% (4-14)
Medina-Ramon et al.(45) 2006 PM10 10 COPD admissions 1.47% (0.93–2.01)
Dominici et al.(46) 2006 PM2.5 10 COPD admissions 1.61% (0.56–2.66)
Ostro et al.(47) 2009 PM2.5 14.6 Pediatric respiratory admissions 4.1% (1.8–6.4)”
Vivian Chit Pun et al.(48) 2014 PM10 10 Ischemic Heart Disease (IHD) admissions 1.87% (95% CI: 0.66- 3.10)
Manojkumar N et al.(49) 2019 PM2.5 Not Measured Respiratory and Cardiac hospital admissions 13.4% (5-9)
Ferreira TM et al. (50) 2016 PM2.5 12.9 Hospital admissions 7% (4-11)
Ji-Young Son et al. (51) 2013 PM10 Not Measured Hospital admissions 2.14%
Colais P et al. (52) 2012 PM10 10 Cardiac disease and hospital admissions 1.23% (0.93 –2.16)
Dastoorpoor et al. (53) 2019 PM10 Not Measured Cardiovascular (ICD) admissions 1.009 (1.004 – 1.014)
Salma et al. (54) 2019 PM2.5 15.8 Respiratory hospital admissions 1.70%

PM and Cerebrovascular Health Effects

Cerebrovascular and coronary systemic diseases share many pathophysiologic and risk factors and characteristics. CRP, for example, is also active in the genesis of stroke close to cardiovascular disease [55]. However, the evidence linking PM and stroke is more irregular and the mechanisms less understood. Dominica et al. [46]. reviewed air quality data for 204 US urban counties and showed that a 10-μg/m3 increase in ambient PM 2.5 increased the risk of hospitalization for cerebrovascular events by 0.8% (95% CI, 0.3–1.3%). A separate review [56]. of Medicare patients found an increase of 1.03% (95% CI, 0.04–2.04%) for hospital admission for ischemic stroke for each 10-μg/m3 increase in PM10. Other investigators found a previous day PM2.5 increase of 5.2 μg/m3 led to a 3% (95% CI, 0–7%) increase in TIA and ischemic stroke risk. In contrast, a recent large prospective multi-center stroke registry found no increase in the general population for ischemic stroke from exposure to PM 2.5. There was, however, an 11% (95% CI, 1–22%) increase in stroke risk in exposed patients with diabetes [57]. A major case-crossover study found a connection between other air pollution components (NO2 and CO) and stroke, but no interaction with changing PM levels was observed [58]. Similarly, a large registry of first-ever strokes is not associated with PM10 for ischemic or haemorrhagic stroke [59].

Recommendations and Conclusion

A minimal yet clear and vital impact of PM on

human health appears to be present in the literature evaluation. In all, a significant global public health burden arises from the smaller human impacts. The implications for cardiovascular disease are particularly pronounced. Several studies have found that premature death and hospitalization have been raised. Related symptoms arise in respiratory conditions with lower amplitude. There are limits to most of the accessible PM studies. Many experiments do not use the exposure data separately. In particular, air sensors are used as replacements for human exposure in population centers.

Estimates may not be correct even after correction of these results for traffic time, exposure to secondhand smoke, etc. Despite these restrictions, there are common findings from multiple forms of research in different areas. A dose-response association has been established “between PM exposure and adverse effects, and” changes in health endpoints have been found in decreased PM exposures. Overall, the available data shows that long- and short-term exposure to PM is correlated with cardiovascular, respiratory, and mortality. Further analysis is essential to appreciate the effect of PM on human wellbeing truly. Although tests have demonstrated that an elevated PM concentration has harmful effects on health, the exact nature of noxious particles remains uncertain. More experiments are also needed in order to explain the length of the effects of PM.

Some symptoms tend to occur within hours in small trials, while others hit their highest PM doses within many days. The details on this “late time” effect will disagree, and it remains an imperfect understanding of this phenomenon.

Public Health Review - International Journal of Public Health Research 2021;8(2)17
Mukhopadhyay D. et al: A Critical Review on the Effect of Particulate

There is more investigation into the real biological processes that contribute to PM-induced pathology. Besides, while regional exposure data have become normal PM epidemiology, actual individual exposure studies still have to be thoroughly performed. Finally, research that identify vulnerable populations will help form more guidelines depending on the population.

The Air Quality Index (AQI) [60]. offers the latest statistics on local PM and other pollutant concentrations. Although government agencies have suggested PM exposure reduction, the execution of these recommendations with peer-reviewed monitored evidence is constrained.

Table 04: Air quality index and recommendations

[“Air quality index: a guide to air quality and your health. EPA, August 2019” AQI air quality index “a” People with heart or lung disease, children, or older adults - EPA-456/F-19-002]

“AQI level AQI value PM2.5 PM10 Actions to protect your health from particle pollution
Good 0–50 0–15 0–50 None
Moderate 51–100 16–35 51–154 Unusually sensitive people should consider reducing prolonged or heavy exertion
Unhealthy for sensitive groups 101–150 36–65 155–254 Susceptible groupsa should reduce prolonged or heavy exertion; everyone else should limit prolonged or heavy exertion need the same reference as the previous table
Unhealthy for sensitive groups 151–200 66–150 255–354 Susceptible groupsa should avoid all physical activity outdoors; everyone else should avoid prolonged or heavy exertion
Very unhealthy 201–300 >150 >354 Susceptible groupsa should remain indoors and keep activity levels low. Everyone else should avoid all physical activity outdoors”

Although the sensitivity to PM is all-embracing, the healthy amount is uncertain and researched. The general advancement of wellbeing will lead to medical education and behavioral change interventions. These data will also encourage legislators to enact or improve current laws restricting the exposure to PMs after weighing the economic effects. Volcanoes, forest fires, and other causes of natural PM are and are indispensable to our environment. However, we will potentially see a decrease in morbidity and mortality by reducing modifiable PM radiation.

Reference

  1. Nemery B, Hoet PH, Nemmar A. The Meuse Valley fog of 1930- an air pollution disaster. Lancet. 2001 Mar 3;357(9257)704-8.
  2. Bell ML, Davis DL. Reassessment of the lethal London fog of 1952- novel indicators of acute and chronic consequences of acute exposure to air pollution. Environ Health Perspect. 2001 Jun;109(Suppl 3)389-94.
  1. Nandasena YL, Wickremasinghe AR, Sathiakumar N. Air pollution and health in Sri Lanka- a review of epidemiologic studies. BMC Public Health. 2010 Jun 2;10;300.
  2. Balyan P, Ghosh C, Sharma A K, Banerjee B D. Health Effects of Air Pollution among Residents of Delhi- A Systematic Review. International Journal of Health Sciences and Research. 2018;8(1)273-282.
  3. Schwartz J. Air pollution and blood markers of cardiovascular risk. Environ Health Perspect. 2001 Jun;109(Suppl 3):405-9.
  4. Ray, Manas Ranjan, and Twisha Lahiri. "Air pollution and its effects on health–Case studies, India. " Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata. 2010.
  5. Kumar R, Sharma SK, Thakur JS, Lakshmi PV, Sharma MK, Singh T. Association of air pollution and mortality in the Ludhiana city of India- a time-series study. Indian J Public Health. 2010 Apr-Jun;54(2)98-103.

Public Health Review - International Journal of Public Health Research 2021;8(2)18
Mukhopadhyay D. et al: A Critical Review on the Effect of Particulate
  1. Balakrishnan K, Ganguli B, Ghosh S, Sankar S, Thanasekaraan V, Rayudu VN, Caussy H. HEI Health Review Committee, Part 1- Short-term effects of air pollution on mortality- results from a time-series analysis in Chennai, India. Res Rep Health Eff Inst. 2011 Mar;(157)7-44.
  2. Sahu S K, Kota S H. Significance of PM2, 5 air quality at the Indian capital. Aerosol and air quality research. 2017;17(2)588-597.
  3. Samet JM. Air pollution and Epidemiology- "déjà vu all over again?". Epidemiology. 2002 Mar;13(2)118-9.
  4. Dockery DW. Health effects of particulate air pollution. Ann Epidemiol. 2009 Apr;19(4)257-63.
  5. THAMBAVANI DS, Maheswari JJCT. A combined analysis of airborne particulate pollutants exposure and its potential risk. Chem Sci Trans. 2013;2(2)598-604.
  6. Chhabra SK, Chhabra P, Rajpal S, Gupta RK. Ambient air pollution and chronic respiratory morbidity in Delhi. Arch Environ Health. 2001 Jan-Feb;56(1)58-64.
  7. Sindhwani, Rati, and Pramila Goyal. "Assessment of traffic-generated gaseous and particulate matter emissions and trends over Delhi (2000–2010). " Atmospheric Pollution Research. 2014;5(3)438-446.
  8. Anderson JO, Thundiyil JG, Stolbach A. Clearing the air- a review of the effects of particulate matter air pollution on human health. J Med Toxicol. 2012 Jun;8(2)166-75.
  9. Vincent D. Airborne particulate matter and their health effects. Encyclopedia of Environment. 2019.
  1. Dockery DW, Pope CA 3rd, Xu X, Spengler JD, Ware JH, Fay ME, et al. An association between air pollution and mortality in six US cities. N Engl J Med. 1993 Dec 9;329(24)1753-9.
  2. Pope CA 3rd, Thun MJ, Namboodiri MM, Dockery DW, Evans JS, Speizer FE, et al. Particulate air pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of US adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Mar;151(3 Pt 1)669-74.
  3. Samet JM, Dominici F, Curriero FC, Coursac I, Zeger SL. Fine particulate air pollution and mortality in 20 US cities, 1987-1994. N Engl J Med. 2000 Dec 14;343(24)1742-9.
  4. Kaufman JD, Elkind MSV, Bhatnagar A, Koehler K, Balmes JR, Sidney S, et al. Guidance to Reduce the Cardiovascular Burden of Ambient Air Pollutants- A Policy Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020 Dec 8;142(23)e432-e447.
  5. Quan C, Sun Q, Lippmann M, Chen LC. Comparative effects of inhaled diesel exhaust and ambient fine particles on inflammation, atherosclerosis, and vascular dysfunction. Inhal Toxicol. 2010 Aug;22(9)738-53.
  6. Sun Q, Wang A, Jin X, Natanzon A, Duquaine D, Brook RD, et al. Long-term air pollution exposure and acceleration of atherosclerosis and vascular inflammation in an animal model. JAMA. 2005 Dec 21;294(23)3003-10.
  7. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH. Plasma concentration of interleukin-6 and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men. Circulation. 2000 Apr 18;101(15)1767-72.

Public Health Review - International Journal of Public Health Research 2021;8(2)19
Mukhopadhyay D. et al: A Critical Review on the Effect of Particulate
  1. Wennberg P, Wensley F, Di Angelantonio E, Johansson L, Boman K, Rumley A, et al. Haemostatic and inflammatory markers are independently associated with myocardial infarction in men and women. Thromb Res. 2012 Jan;129(1)68-73.
  2. Rückerl R, Ibald-Mulli A, Koenig W, Schneider A, Woelke G, Cyrys J, et al. Air pollution and markers of inflammation and coagulation in patients with coronary heart disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006 Feb 15;173(4)432-41.
  3. Hoffmann B, Moebus S, Dragano N, Stang A, Möhlenkamp S, Schmermund A, et al. Chronic residential exposure to particulate matter air pollution and systemic inflammatory markers. Environ Health Perspect. 2009;117(8)1302-8.
  4. Chuang KJ, Chan CC, Su TC, Lee CT, Tang CS. The effect of urban air pollution on inflammation, oxidative stress, coagulation, and autonomic dysfunction in young adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176(4)370-6.
  5. Schicker B, Kuhn M, Fehr R, Asmis LM, Karagiannidis C, Reinhart WH. Particulate matter inhalation during hay storing activity induces systemic inflammation and platelet aggregation. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2009 Mar;105(5)771-8.
  6. Brook RD, Rajagopalan S, Pope CA 3rd, Brook JR, Bhatnagar A, Diez-Roux AV, et al. Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease- An update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2010 Jun 1;121(21)2331-78.
  7. Nemmar A, Hoet PH, Dinsdale D, Vermylen J, Hoylaerts MF, Nemery B. Diesel exhaust particles in lung acutely enhance experimental peripheral thrombosis. Circulation. 2003 Mar 4;107(8)1202-8.
  1. Nemmar A, Hoylaerts MF, Hoet PH, Dinsdale D, Smith T, Xu H, et al. Ultrafine particles affect experimental thrombosis in an in vivo hamster model. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002 Oct 1;166(7)998-1004.
  2. Miller KA, Siscovick DS, Sheppard L, Shepherd K, Sullivan JH, Anderson GL, et al. Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women. N Engl J Med. 2007 Feb 1;356(5)447-58.
  3. Torén K, Bergdahl IA, Nilsson T, Järvholm B. Occupational exposure to particulate air pollution and mortality due to ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease. Occup Environ Med. 2007 Aug;64(8)515-9.
  4. Pope CA 3rd, Muhlestein JB, May HT, Renlund DG, Anderson JL, Horne BD. Ischemic heart disease events triggered by short-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. Circulation. 2006 Dec 5;114(23)2443-8.
  5. Omori T, Fujimoto G, Yoshimura I, Nitta H, Ono M. Effects of particulate matter on daily mortal- ity in 13 Japanese cities. J Epidemiol. 2003;13
  6. Nelin TD, Joseph AM, Gorr MW, Wold LE. Direct and indirect effects of particulate matter on the cardiovascular system. Toxicol Lett. 2012;208
  7. Ye X, Peng L, Kan H, Wang W, Geng F, Mu Z, et al. Acute Effects of Particulate Air Pollution on the Incidence of Coronary Heart Disease in Shanghai, China. PLoS One. 2016 Mar 4;11(3)e0151119.
  8. Xu A, Mu Z, Jiang B, Wang W, Yu H, Zhang L, et al. Acute Effects of Particulate Air Pollution on Ischemic Heart Disease Hospitalizations in Shanghai, China. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017 Feb 9;14(2)168.

Public Health Review - International Journal of Public Health Research 2021;8(2)20
Mukhopadhyay D. et al: A Critical Review on the Effect of Particulate
  1. Jia X, Yang X, Hu D, Dong W, Yang F, Liu Q, et al. Short-term effects of particulate matter in metro cabin on heart rate variability in young healthy adults- Impacts of particle size and source. Environ Res. 2018 Nov;167;292-298.
  2. Joshi T K. "A health survey to determine the adverse health impact of pollution in Delhi. " Centre for occupational and environmental medicine, MAMC, New Delhi. (1998).
  3. Lee JT, Son JY, Cho YS. The adverse effects of fine particle air pollution on respiratory function in the elderly. Sci Total Environ. 2007 Oct 15;385(1-3)28-36.
  4. Downs SH, Schindler C, Liu LJ, Keidel D, Bayer-Oglesby L, Brutsche MH, et al. Reduced exposure to PM10 and attenuated age-related decline in lung function. N Engl J Med. 2007 Dec 6;357(23)2338-47.
  5. Gent JF, Triche EW, Holford TR, Belanger K, Bracken MB, Beckett WS, et al. Association of low-level ozone and fine particles with respiratory symptoms in children with asthma. JAMA. 2003 Oct 8;290(14)1859-67.
  6. Karr C, Lumley T, Schreuder A, Davis R, Larson T, Ritz B, ett al. Effects of sub chronic and chronic exposure to ambient air pollutants on infant bronchiolitis. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;165
  7. Medina-Ramón M, Zanobetti A, Schwartz J. The effect of ozone and PM10 on hospital admissions for pneumonia and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease- a national multicity study. Am J Epidemiol. 2006 Mar 15;163(6)579-88.
  8. Dominici F, Peng RD, Bell ML, Pham L, McDermott A, Zeger SL, et al. Fine particulate air pollution and hospital admission for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. JAMA. 2006 Mar 8;295(10)1127-34.
  1. Ostro B, Roth L, Malig B, Marty M. The effects of fine particle components on respiratory hospital admissions in children. Environ Health Perspect. 2009 Mar;117(3)475-80.
  2. Pun VC, Yu IT, Ho KF, Qiu H, Sun Z, Tian L. Differential effects of source-specific particulate matter on emergency hospitalizations for ischemic heart disease in Hong Kong. Environ Health Perspect. 2014 Apr;122(4)391-6.
  3. Manojkumar N, Srimuruganandam B. Health effects of particulate matter in major Indian cities. Int J Environ Health Res. 2021;31(3)
  4. Ferreira TM, Forti MC, de Freitas CU, Nascimento FP, Junger WL, Gouveia N. Effects of Particulate Matter and Its Chemical Constituents on Elderly Hospital Admissions Due to Circulatory and Respiratory Diseases. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2016 Sep 23;13(10)947.
  5. Son JY, Lee JT, Park YH, Bell ML. Short-term effects of air pollution on hospital admissions in Korea. Epidemiology. 2013 Jul;24(4)545-54.
  6. Colais P, Faustini A, Stafoggia M, Berti G, Bisanti L, Cadum E, et al. Particulate air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiac diseases in poten -tially sensitive subgroups. Epidemiology. 2012;
  7. Dastoorpoor M, Sekhavatpour Z, Masoumi K, Mohammadi MJ, Aghababaeian H, Khanjani N, et al. Air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular diseases in Ahvaz, Iran. Sci Total Environ. 2019 Feb 20;652;1318-1330.
  8. Slama A, Śliwczyński A, Woźnica J, Zdrolik M, Wiśnicki B, Kubajek J, et al. Impact of air pollution on hospital admissions with a focus on respiratory diseases- a time-series multi-city analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2019;26(17)

Public Health Review - International Journal of Public Health Research 2021;8(2)21
Mukhopadhyay D. et al: A Critical Review on the Effect of Particulate
  1. Calabrò P, Golia E, Yeh ET. Role of C-reactive protein in acute myocardial infarction and stroke- possible therapeutic approaches. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2012 Jan;13(1)4-16.
  2. Wellenius GA, Schwartz J, Mittleman MA. Air pollution and hospital admissions for ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke among medicare beneficiaries. Stroke. 2005 Dec;36(12)2549-53.
  3. O'Donnell MJ, Fang J, Mittleman MA, Kapral MK, Wellenius GA. Investigators of the Registry of Canadian Stroke Network, Fine particulate air pollution (PM2,5) and the risk of acute ischemic stroke. Epidemiology. 2011 May;22(3)422-31.
  1. Villeneuve PJ, Chen L, Stieb D, Rowe BH. Associations between outdoor air pollution and emergency department visits for stroke in Edmonton, Canada. Eur J Epidemiol. 2006;21(9)689-700.
  2. Henrotin JB, Besancenot JP, Bejot Y, Giroud M. Short-term effects of ozone air pollution on ischaemic stroke occurrence- a case-crossover analysis from a 10-year population-based study in Dijon, France. Occup Environ Med. 2007 Jul;64(7)439-45.
  3. Air quality index and recommendations Air Now- Gov. 2020.

Public Health Review - International Journal of Public Health Research 2021;8(2)22